To
what degree were Classical influences on architecture
adopted
and adapted in Welsh building styles 1500-1800?
Fifteenth century Italy saw the revival
of a genuine interest in the world of the classical Romans and Greeks.
What perhaps began as a scholarly interest into the literary works of the
ancient writers such as Cicero, Plato and Aristotle, soon came to influence
all aspects of Italian life; values and attitudes, dress, education, art
and architecture. It was perhaps the latter which was the most visible,
and most widely accessible aspect of this revival. Even the poor, who could
not appreciate the literary works of the ancients could appreciate the
splendid classical architecture that was rapidly coming to surround them.
Classical architecture differed in some
significant ways from that of the Gothic style which was popular in the
middle ages. It was a much more organized, precise, pre-planned type of
architecture. The entire emphasis was on proportion , balance and harmony.
The ancient writer Vitruvius, whose work was dramatically rediscovered
by Poggio, declared;
"Architecture consists of Order...Arrangement...Proportion,
Symmetry, and Propriety and economy". (1)
There were rules and regulations and certain
patterns to follow. All aspects of a building were to correspond to each
other, and the facade of a building was to be vertically symmetrical. Doors
and windows were to be placed in proportion to each other dictated by mathematical
guidelines, with columns there was an order; the Doric first, the Ionic
and then the Corinthian, and arches and parapets had certain functions.
There were also important characteristic differences between door and windows
of the two periods. In the middle ages, doors generally were there for
the practical purpose of entry, and excepting for large Churches, and some
castles, were no bigger than the average human body in terms of width and
height. Windows too generally tended to be small, mullioned, or sometimes
only slits to spy out of or shoot arrows. Only buildings such as churches
had beautiful adorned windows with colored glass. Doors of classical buildings
tended to be large, showing it's importance, and often adorned with decoration,
and placed on steps. Windows were larger and longer, and were semi-circular
rather than pointed. The appearance of a building in Classical styles of
paramount importance. Buildings were to be grand and elegant, displaying
perfect harmony and balance. Arches and Columns, parapets which served
a structural function also contributed significantly to the appearances
The first architects of the Italian Renaissance
such as Brunelleshci and Alberti made as much use of these classical rules
as was possible in their attempt to imitate the works of the ancients.
The influences are clear in their works such as Brunelleshci's Dome of
the Florence Cathedral, and in his foundling hospital. However, it was
with Bramante that Classical styles were truly incorporated into building
styles, and his work the Tempietto of Saint Pietro in Montonio, Rome was
the first true classical building of the city. However, Renaissance
architecture, despite it's similarities with the classical styles did not
emulate them completely, and had a culture of it's own. In a sense it was
impossible to emulate them precisely, as there was little known about the
architectural principles. Apart from Vitruvius's recovered text, and the
number of ruins dotting the Italian states, this was a lost world. Also
the rules were complicated and it is possible that not all architects fully
comprehended them. It is clear that the Renaissance architects generally
used the columns, arches and parapets as a decoration alone, not fully
aware of the structural function these had had in the ancient world. Although
these architects tried to imitate the works of the classics as much as
they could, they tended to adapt the ideals to modern needs, and largely
confined them to the external appearances of buildings. In some respects
therefor, Renaissance architecture was a rather shallow form of the classical,
being as Fletcher argues superficial. It is perhaps therefore worth baring
in mind that although the architectural style which flourished in Italy
in this period, and came to influence buildings all over Europe, was classically
orientated and classically inspired, it was different, and it was the adaptation
of the classical ideals made by the first Renaissance architects that really
exerted an influence. Alberti was important in this respect. He was one
of the first architects to show how the ideals could be adapted to modern
building needs. The demanded for more elaborate domestic buildings was
growing in this period, and Alberti with his designs for showed how classical
ideals could be applied to small buildings.
However, the new interest in classical
architecture which had taken such a hold of the Italians, was rather slow
in taking ground in the rest of Europe. What began in Italy in the fifteenth
century, did not effect some areas of Europe until the seventeenth or even
eighteenth centuries. One such area was Wales. Wales was separated from
Italy by miles of land and sea. She did not experience at first hand the
revival of the classical culture, a culture that was not her own. It took
time for the ideas that were circulating in southern and central Europe
to reach her shores, and when they did, they had been tailored by the winds
of the journey. From the very first, when considering the influence of
Renaissance, classical architectural styles on Welsh buildings of this
period, it is important to emphasis that the influence was limited. However,
between the three centuries which separated the Reformation and the Victorian
era, a number of changes occurred in Welsh building styles, and the influence
of Classical styles and ideals can be discerned.
The classical style had, fairly early in
this period, a quite pronounced influence on the building styles of the
wealthy in Wales. Classical styles first made their appearance in the beginning
of the sixteenth century in the royal residences of Henry the Eighth, such
as Hampton Court, and those of the Welsh gentry who frequented the Royal
Court were no doubt influenced by the impressive architecture they saw
there and were inspired to improve the appearance of their own homes. Another
point of contact with the classical ideals was travel and business. Wealthy
individuals, such as Sir Richard Clough, who had business connections abroad
had the opportunity to see the revival first hand, and become familiar
with the styles. By, and during, Queen Elizabeth's reign the beginnings
of this influence can be seen in the type of houses that the gentry of
Wales had built. The first house in Wales to be built truly in the classical
style was Bachegraig in , belonging to Sir Richard Clough. It was built
on a grand scale, incorporating all the notions of vertical symmetry and
proportion, lengthy windows and a central positioned door way. Even the
chimneys were arranged in a symmetrical pattern to correspond to the balance
of the house. Although Bachegraig was "for a long time the only house
to express the Renaissance idea in it's entirety", classical influences
can also be seen in other houses of the period such as Trevalyn Hall.
One important but latent aspect of Classical architecture was the idea
that all buildings should be built to impress. This aspect of classical
ideals certainly flourished in Tudor and Stuart Wales. It can clearly be
seen in the popularity of the gatehouse, which was erected totally for
visual effect rather than defence. These gatehouses clearly show classical
influences. The gatehouses of Corsygedol, Merionethshire,
and Trefalun in Denbighshire, for example, are both vertically symmetrical
and rather ornately decorated, the one of Trefalun even having a colonnaded
and arched entrance, which was rather advanced for this period. Into the
seventeenth century classical influences are even more pronounced. Tredegar
House and Great Castle House in Monmouthshire, Plas Teg and Erddig, all
reflect classical
influences in their layout and vertical
symmetry. Tredegar as well as having these basic qualifications is also
rather lavishly ornate, incorporating stone decorations above the pretty
semi-circular arched windows, and especially the central placed doorway.
Erddig has a more simplistic design, but is no less striking, and its alleged
three hundred and sixty five windows, all carefully placed in proportion
to each other, contribute to the classical feel of the house. It was in
the eighteenth century however, that classical styles reached their height.
Now houses incorporated more fully classical columns, arches, the flat
front and flat roof decorated by an ornate parapet. The beginning of the
eighteenth century saw the flourishing of the Baroque style, which was
highly ornamental but had a rather "artificial" quality, but the popularity
of this style soon withered away. By 1730, the classical, or more specifically,
Palladian styles had overshadowed it. Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) from
whose work this style derived, during his life had been heavily influenced
by the work of Bramante, and he incorporated Bramante's styles into his
own. One of the main reasons Palladio was such an influential figure in
this period was because the books he wrote on architecture, the most prominent
being I Quattro Libri dell Architectura, had been studied quite
intensely by Inigo Jones(1573-1652)the first professional British architect,
whose work became popular in this century. Several grand houses of the
eighteenth century clearly show classical Influences. Nanteous (1739),
in Cardiganshire, which has a colonnaded protruding front porch, a flat
roof and an ornately decorated parapet, and Pickwick hall in Seswick, Denbighshire,
has a colonnaded facade, with an even more ornate parapet, which hides
the flat roof. However, of all eighteenth century Welsh buildings in the
classical style, perhaps it is the Orangery at Margam (1787) that is the
finest example of the Classical ideal. Attributed to Anthony Keck it has
classical style semi-circular arched windows, a pedimented pavilion at
each end, and a raised parapet with floral carvings over the central windows.
Classical influences even extend to gardens which as Pallister states was
"a
form of outdoor architecture . . . with its walls, obelisks statues,
fountains and geometrical beds", and these too became increasingly
grand as the period wore on. (2)
However, with the exception of country
mansions, only a few of the changes that occurred in Welsh building styles
during this period can be directly attributed to the Classical influence
of the Renaissance. It has been argued that the Tudor and early Stuart
period was a transitionary period from the medieval to the more Classically
orientated styles. John B Hilling for example states;
"It was part of the metamorphic transition
from military and ecclesiastical buildings to the more sedate compositions
of classically inspired compositions."
But this is debatable. It is important
to emphasize that Classical forms of architecture never came to dominate
in Wales, or for that matter in England. Almost as soon as the Classical
style reached its height in the eighteenth century, the wheel of fashion
turned again, this time back into the past, and the closing decades of
the century saw the revival of Gothic and medieval castellate styles, which
came to dominate Victorian aristocratic homes. In the late eighteenth century,
houses such as that of the Williamses mansion in Bodelwyddan, Denbighshire,
which had not long been re-built in the classical style, were modified
into the castellate, Gothic manner. Arguably what occurred in the three
centuries following the Reformation was not a transition from one style
to another, but the evolution of the Vernacular. Classical styles did exert
an influence on the development of vernacular buildings, but there were
other powerful factors simultaneously exerting an influence, which were
also responsible for the way in which Welsh building styles developed in
this period.
For Wales, the sixteenth century was period
of peace and prosperity. The acts of Union at the beginning of the century
were important in creating internal peace, and greater security amongst
the Welsh people who no longer had to fear an English invasion. In England
too, factional and family feuds which had been such a feature of the fourteenth
century faded with the strong, competent rule of the Tudors. This greater
feeling of security in England and Wales lead to changes in the nature
of houses, making defence no longer a prime concern. The great castles
and houses of the middle ages had large high walls and fortified entrances
to prevent the enemy access. Windows were generally small and placed on
first or second floor level, and if the threat of attack was particularly
strong, the outer wall would perhaps have no windows, only slits from which
to spy and shoot arrows, and the building would perhaps be protected by
a moat such as at Beaumaris. Houses were generally introverted. With the
more relaxed atmosphere of the sixteenth century, houses began to be more
extroverted, and fortresses gave way to the more decorative manor and country
houses which reached there peak between 1700 and 1760. Also the Increased
wealth in society, largely because of this more stable and efficient rule,
meant that the gentry now had the financial means to embark on more adventurous
and lavish building ventures.
The Reformation also brought about significant
developments, which in time, came to influence Welsh building styles. Arguably
it was in large part the Reformation which brought about the shift in emphasis
from ecclesiastical buildings to domestic, which allowed the nobility and
gentry to concentrate on building impressive houses for themselves. With
the Reformation the focus shifted from the "public" wealth of churches,
to the "private" wealth of individuals. Protestant teachings of predestination,
and the futility of man's actions in the light of it, lead to a whole new
attitude governing lifestyles. In the middle ages, individuals were worried
about surrounding themselves with riches, believing it was sinful, and
thus desired to live moderately, but now the belief of predestination mean
that individuals felt the need to look for signs of God's favor, and wealth
was seen as a sign. People began to make the most of their wealth, spending
it on their houses and bodily comforts, and dying nobles and rich men no
longer felt it necessary to bequeath money to the building and maintenance
of a church. Also the Reformation, with its emphasis on the need to be
familiar with the Scriptures, gave rise a new attitude towards privacy,
although the humanism of the Renaissance also played a part. If individuals
were to study the Scriptures they needed a quiet place to retire, and this
created the desire for individual space, which arguably played a part in
the development of the personal bed chamber. This desire for privacy was
significant in changing building styles. In the middle ages, houses were
far from private. The plans were simple, and the number of room less than
a handful. In many houses there was only the Hall, which although was often
divided into bays, offered families little privacy from servants. With
an increased desire for privacy, houses became larger as more rooms were
added, usually horizontally. In time, this development lead to the double
pile house, which gave added rooms, but less external wall, which improved
the warmth of buildings, and the "Ty hir" which tended to house both animals
and people, became a human residence only, the animals being relegated
to separate buildings.
Technological improvements, and practical
developments also changed building styles in this period. It was largely
because of technological advances that the more sophisticated buildings
of the seventeenth century and eighteenth were possible, and the coming
of the fireplace was of paramount importance. Not only did it greatly improve
methods of heating, but it also meant that vertical extensions were possible.
In the middle ages, the open hearth fire had meant that vertical extensions
were impossible as there was nowhere for the smoke to escape, now an additional
floor could be added, which also meant that rooms could be added without
having to take away a proportion of the land, which for the lesser farmers
was perhaps a necessary consideration. By the end of Elizabeth's reign,
storied houses were becoming increasingly popular, even amongst the lower
classes. Arguably the coming of the fireplace and flues also helped people
to achieve a greater privacy. The open hearth fire made it rather impractical
to have many rooms as there would be no means of adequately heating them
as it would be dangerous not to mention unhealthy to have such a fire in
every room, but Chimneys and flues meant that any number of rooms could
be heated. The chimney and fireplace thus gave a greater freedom in designs,
and encouraged a move away from the cruck framed open to the roof hall
house, to the more private, compact, storied house.
Neither was the classical style the only continental style to influence
domestic buildings in Wales. As Michael Reed states;
"Many of the new ideas came ultimately
from Renaissance Italy, although frequently through the filter of France
and the Low Countries rather than directly from Italy itself." (3)
Indeed, Dutch styles were quite influential
in Wales, particularly in the North. This was largely due to the influence
of Richard Clough who had traveled the Low Countries, and impressed by
the architecture he saw there, desired to build a home in a similar style
in Wales. This he did, and his house, Plas Clough had crow-stepped gables
which were so fashionable in the Low Countries. This set the mold
for further use of it in the area, for example in Plas Mawr, Conwy and
in Faenol Fawr in Bodelwyddan, built in 1597. The Romantic style of the
middle ages was also relatively popular and remained so. Also in the sixteenth
and early seventeenth centuries, the gentry did not want to break completely
from the past, as one of the requirements of gentility was ancient
lineage, and what better way to display this than in the ancient family
home, which seemed to separate them from the "new houses"of the nouveaux
riches.
It is also necessary to take into consideration
cultural, practical and financial factors when considering the degree of
influence of classical styles. It is arguable that one of the reasons Renaissance
principles did not have a profound influence in this period was because
the gentry did not necessarily like the styles. They were completely different
to what they were used to. The Welsh people had an innate conservatism
which made them rather cautious towards any "foreign" influence, whether
it be from Italy or even England. Many may not have wanted to incorporate
Italian styles into their buildings, believing that their was nothing wrong
with their own style, and a classical column here and there and a parapet
would look rather ridiculous in a cottage. Neither was the architectural
styles of the medieval period entirely inferior to that of the Renaissance.
Quite the contrary, some medieval architecture, especially the perpendicular
style could be particularly breathtaking. Also Columns, arches and notions
of symmetry were not exclusive to the classical style but could be seen
in many building of the high middle ages in Europe, even in England. The
interior of Salisbury Cathedral for example, is beautifully symmetrical,
and the Nave of Durham Cathedral has arches and columns, perfectly arranged
and proportioned. Arguably the people of Wales preferred their own traditional
styles. This can be seen in that "Houses continued to be built to
traditional designs long after the seventeenth century had come to an end".(4)
This
was perhaps partly because the Classical styles were rather impractical
to their needs. To begin with the Welsh climate, especially in the upland
region, is generally cold, and the weather is often wet. The openness and
spaciousness of Italian buildings suited the warm Italian weather, but
was not suited to wind, rain and snow. Large, grand doors and windows may
have looked nice but they were also draughty, and large rooms difficult
to heat. Flat roofs would be impractical considering the rain and snow
they would have to withstand, and it is therefore not surprising not that
the more appropriate slanted roof was never replaced. Hilling argues that
in this period "...dignified appearance was more important than comfort",(5)
but
this was not always so. As much as the Renaissance man may have wanted
dignity and beauty in his house, warmth and dryness were still overriding
factors, as Francis Bacon declared; "Houses are built to live in
not to look at." (6)
Even had the Welsh population at large
desired to build extensively in the classical style, the financial and
economic situation of Wales would have forbidden it. For most of this period
Wales was a relatively poor country. She had few centers of urban wealth,
no Royal Court, and even the Welsh gentry were not as wealthy as their
English counterparts. This lack of wealth was a serious handicap to the
flourishing of Classical ideals. To build large houses with columns, arches,
long, decorative windows, flat roofs and parapets required money, and lots
of it. Therefore classical styles were beyond the reach of the poor, who
in the later sixteenth century when prices were high, and wages low, could
barely afford basic comforts such as stone paved floors or glazed windows.
Even by the late eighteenth century, the lower classes had not gained sufficiently
in wealth to be able to buy or build grand houses. In the sixteenth century
building materials were not cheap. Glass alone was phenomenally expensive.
Neither were the materials needed to build in the Classical style readily
available in Wales. Building materials tended to be dictated by regional
position. In the north for example, stone and slate were plentiful, and
these tended to be the materials commonly used. The south, in contrast,
was richer in timber, and particularly near the Severn Valley timber was
the most popular building material. Classical styles, to be effective demanded
a flat surface stone or preferably bricks, but such stones and bricks were
not produced in Wales to any great extent. Therefore, if individuals desired
to use them, it would be necessary to import the materials. This would
not only be problematic and time-consuming considering the inadequate modes
of transport, but also very expensive. It is likely that they would have
to import architects and workmen too as it is debatable whether or not
the local builders and craftsmen would have been sufficiently familiar
with the classical ideals to do a good job. Many gentleman simply could
not afford to build grand houses from scratch, and had to content themselves
with renovating their old residences.
Thus cultural, financial and practical
reasons meant that the Welsh were obliged to adapt classical styles if
they wanted to adopt them. Just as the Italian architects had adapted the
ideals to modern needs, so did the Welsh. What they did was take the aspects
of classical architecture which most appealed to them, and adapted them
to the vernacular building styles. As Pallister argues, "tradition
mingled with continental influences to produce a new and vigorous secular
architecture" (7)The way Classical styles were adapted can be seen
in some of the architecture of the period. Powys castle, a thirteenth century
fortress had fashionable windows inserted, and Carew Castle, which was
the home of John Perrot had an extra wing with giant windows and semi-circular
bays. Plas Teg (1610) shows how the ideals could be incorporated into new
buildings. This house clearly reflects classical notions of symmetry and
proportion, but also retains some of the Vernacular influence in its style,
having four towers incorporated into the symmetrical pattern of the house.
One of the prime examples of a house adapted to classical ideals is Old
Beaupre. An otherwise moderate house on the Vernacular tradition, it was
modernized to incorporate a truly classical style porch, which fully embedded
the Renaissance qualities and orders of columns the Doric, ionic and Corinthian.
From the late sixteenth century onwards lengthy windows and large doors
became popular, but as was predictable, they were draughty. To compensate
for this, the late Tudors and early Stuarts, had internal and external
porches added, to keep the cold air at bay. One of the ways classical ideals
could be incorporated into Welsh buildings which was not as drastic or
as expensive as erecting new buildings, was to change the interior. Classical
ideals advocated that buildings should be beautiful, and if the Welsh were
limited in what they could do to the exterior of their houses, they could
at least make the interior grand. But again, this development can not be
attached solely to the influence of classical ideals, it was very much
a part of the general "evolution" of houses in this period ,and owed as
much to the Reformation, the increased prosperity in society, and general
technological advances.
It can be seen therefore that although classical influences were both adopted
and adapted by the wealthy in their homes, the influence was limited. The
styles could not be adopted in their entirety primarily because of climatic,
financial, practical and cultural reasons. Classical styles if to be adopted
had to be adapted, and this is what largely occurred. Even houses that
were built to emulate the style of the Renaissance were not completely
classical, but retained some of the vernacular, medieval tradition. Classical
influences were not the only influence to change building styles in Wales,
Dutch were also important, but despite the limited influence it did exert,
the ways in which it did were central to the development of Welsh and British
architecture in the future, by fully imbedding in building styles notions
of symmetry proportion, style and beauty, and for bringing in professional
architecture. Pallister argues that "...artists and craftsmen under
Elizabeth displayed a strong continuity with their medieval English past,
absorbing only what suited them of continental influences." (8).
Bibliography
1.Helen Allingham Stewart
Dick, The Cottage Homes of England (London, 1984)
2. M.W.Barley, House and
Home (London, 1963)
3.M.W. Barley, The English
Farmhouse and Cottage (London, 1961)
4. M. W Barley, Houses
and History (London, 1986)
5. R.W Brunskill, The
Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular Architecture (London, 1978)
6. Enid Roberts, "Everyday
life in the homes of the gentry" in Gwynfor Jones, Class, Community
and Culture in Tudor Wales (Cardiff University Press, 1989)
7. Brian E Howells, "The
lower orders of society" in Gwynfor Jones, Ibid.
8. Alfred Gotch, The History
of The English House (London 1985 c1909)
9. John B Hilling, The
Historic architecture of Wales. (Cardiff University Press, 1976).
10. Gareth Elwyn Jones, Modern
Wales - A Concise History (Cambridge, 1994)
11. Peter Murray, Architecture
of the Italian Renaissance (London, 1963)
12. Peter Smith, "Architecture
in Wales during the Renaissance", in Glanmor Williams et al The Celts
and the Renaissance : Tradition and Innovation (Cardiff University
press 1990, c 1989)
13. P. Smith, Houses of
the Welsh countryside (London, 1988)
14. W. S. K Thomas, Tudor
Wales (Llandysul, 1983)
15. Paul Titley, Tudors
and Stuarts (London, 1971)
16. G. M.Treveleyan, English
Social History (London, 1949)
17. M. Wheffen, An Introduction
to Elizabethan and Jacobean Architecture (London, 1959)
Endnotes
1. Peter Murray, Architecture
of the Italian Renaissance (London, 1963) P.11
2. Pallister, The Age
of Elizabeth p.434.
3. Michael Reed. p.135.
4. Michael Reed p.134.
5. John B Hilling, The
Historic architecture of Wales. (Cardiff University Press, 1976), p.106.
6. Enid Roberts, "Everyday
life in the homes of the Gentry" in Gwynfor Jones, Class, Community
and Culture in Tudor Wales (Cardiff University Press, 1989) p.167.
7. Pallister. op.cit.,
p.432.
8. Pallister, ibid.,
p.414.
ESSAY BY HEATHER THOMAS
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